The History of Relations between the Holy See and China

Bishop Gong Pinmie at a Mass in Shanghai, ca. 1950-1955. Photo: https://cicarchiveprototype.wordpress.com

Western imperialism and the French protectorate

 Following the first Opium War (1839-1842), in the context of the weakness of the Chinese Empire and the assertion of the political, military and economic might of Western powers in China marked by “unequal treaties,” a French protectorate was established over the missions of the Catholic Church, referring to both foreign and native Catholics (Whampoa Treaty of 1844, and then of 1856).

In much of Chinese society the link with France (especially for Catholics, while analogous authority issues arose for other Christian denominations) strengthened the perception of Christianity as a foreign religion, leading to xenophobic hatred toward Christians. This would tragically explode in the Boxer Rebellion.

For its part the Holy See was conscious of the need to form an indigenous clergy,[1] and from the middle of the 19th century a discussion began on the issue of relations between the Holy See and China.

In 1886, during the papacy of Leo XIII, there was an attempt to establish “amicable relations,” the result of an initiative taken by the Chinese. However, the pope did not send a nuncio. This was not only due to opposition from the French government but also out of fear of negative consequences for the general support for missions among French Catholics. Even so, it became increasingly clear that the French protectorate influenced the perception of the Church.

In 1900-1901 the xenophobic explosion of the Boxer Rebellion – in which approximately 30,000 Catholics were slaughtered – on the one hand showed the need for protection, given the lack of reliability of the Chinese government of the time, and on the other, that the Western protectorate fostered hatred for Christianity among many Chinese.[2]

In 1912 the Empire ended and the Republic of China was founded.

The new view of Catholic missions: Benedict XV and Pius XI

The papacy of Benedict XV (1914-1922) was very careful and showed foresight on the question of missions and the need to overcome the conditioning of the Church in the colonial era. China had an important place in this scenario. Christianity was no longer to be perceived as a foreign religion.

Beijing resumed the initiative for diplomatic relations with the Holy See. Rome responded positively and aimed to affirm its right to have diplomatic relations with non-Christian nations as well, but France put pressure on Beijing (not on the Holy See, with which it had broken off diplomatic relations that were not reestablished until 1921), and the initiative had to be postponed.

The famous apostolic letter of Benedict XV, Maximum illud, of November 30, 1919, was considered the magna carta of the new course for missionary reform. It was drawn up mainly on the basis of the experience in China.

Pius XI moved forward decisively along the lines outlined by his predecessor. In 1922 he appointed and sent Archbishop Celso Costantini as the first apostolic delegate in China. The delegate renounced any European protection, presided over the famous Council of Shanghai in 1924, and prepared the way for the first ordinations of six Chinese bishops. Pius XI would personally ordain them in Rome on October 28, 1926, the Feast of Christ the King, as a clear demonstration of the desire to create a local Church in China. Archbishop Costantini also made various attempts to establish diplomatic relations – in 1926, 1929 and 1933 (the year he returned to Rome, where he would become the Secretary of Propaganda Fide from 1935 to 1952). These attempts were not successful. Yet this period brought great progress in inculturation and would give rise to the definitive closure of the “Chinese Rites” controversy that in previous centuries had had very negative consequences for the situation of the Catholic Church in China.[3] Constantini was succeeded as apostolic delegate by Archbishop Mario Zanin.

Among the principal documents of Pius XI on the issue of missions and China we should recall the encyclical Rerum Ecclesiae (February 28, 1926) and the apostolic letter to the vicars and apostolic prefects of China, Ab ipsis Pontificatus primordiis (June 15, 1926).

Diplomatic relations with the Republic of China

The extremely turbulent political situation in China saw the Japanese invasion, the rise of the Communist Party, and internal conflict. Then the Second World War broke out. Yet the papacy of Pius XII continued along the same lines regarding the Church in China and diplomatic relations with the Republic of China. In 1942 the “unequal treaties” were definitively abolished, as was the French protectorate. Also in 1942 diplomatic relations between China and the Holy See were announced. In 1946, in the first Consistory after the end of the Second World War, the first Chinese cardinal was announced, Thomas Tien Ken-sin, a Divine Word Missionary. That same year the episcopal hierarchy in China was also established. Its structure is still indicated today in the Pontifical Yearbook (20 archdioceses, 85 dioceses, and 34 apostolic prefectures).[4]

In 1946 Archbishop Antonio Riberi was accredited as the “internuncio” to the Nationalist government of Chiang Kai-shek, in Nanjing. When the new regime took over in 1949, he did not move to Taiwan with the previous government, but remained on the mainland and invited foreign missionaries to remain as well.

The People’s Republic of China and the conflict with the Catholic Church

In 1949 the communists led by Mao Zedong took power. The People’s Republic of China was established. On July 1 the Holy Office condemned communism. The move was aimed above all at the situation in Europe; the condemnation had general force and showed the Church’s position toward the ideology of the new regime. In the first years of the new Republic, the developments in the country were very complex (Korean War, agrarian reform, five-year plan, etc.).

As regards the issue of religion, the “Guangyuan Manifesto” of November 30, 1950, is important as it launched the Three-Self reform movement: self-governing, self-supporting, and self-propagating. This idea had a certain success among Protestants but not among Catholics. In January 1951 the Religious Affairs Office was created.

The internuncio Riberi was forced to leave the country on September 5, 1951, after a violent press campaign against him. All of the foreign Catholic missionaries were also expelled between 1951 and 1954.

With the apostolic letter Cupimus imprimis (1952), Pius XII responded to the Three-Self Movement. In practical terms, the movement failed in regard to the Catholic Church, and a new anti-imperialist movement, based on love of the fatherland and religion was launched. In September 1954 the first Constitution of the People’s Republic of China was adopted, which formally guaranteed freedom of religious belief.

With the encyclical Ad Sinarum gentem (1954), Pius XII condemned the “patriotic movement” in all its forms. With respect to the previous letter, this was a more explicit and detailed condemnation.

In 1955 the bishop of Shanghai, Ignatius Gong Pinmei, was arrested along with many others. At the same time some Catholics decided to enter and participate in political life.

In 1956-1957 Mao Zedong launched the “Hundred Flowers” campaign to improve the relationship between the government and the masses. The arrested Catholics were freed and there was a brief improvement in the atmosphere. In this context in 1957 the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association was founded. Between the end of 1957 and the beginning of 1958 the first ordinations of bishops without a papal mandate took place. That is when so-called “official Catholicism” began. By October 1958, over 20 bishops would be ordained under this arrangement.

With the encyclical Ad Apostolorum principis (1958), Pius XII defended the patriotism of the Chinese Catholics but rejected the Patriotic Association. As for the ordinations without a papal mandate, it was explained that they were illegitimate but valid.

At the beginning of his papacy, in referring to the situation in China, John XXIII spoke of a “schism” (Consistory, December 15, 1958; and January 12, 1959 and May 17, 1959), but his attitude subsequently changed. Between the end of 1958 and the beginning of 1960, a more in-depth reflection led him to the conviction that he should not speak of a “schism” due to there being no desire for a schism on the part of the Chinese clergy.

The Chinese situation in 1959-1960 was complex: the “Great Leap Forward” launched by Mao in 1958 had failed; Mao had to resign as head of state; there was the insurrection in Tibet; the break between China and the USSR occurred, with the departure of all Russian technical personnel; and the anti-US political line was strengthened. In this context in 1960 a public trial took place of bishops Gong Pinmei, sentenced to life in prison, and James Edward Walsh, an American and the only foreign bishop remaining in China, who had been arrested in 1958.

In January 1962 the second Congress of the Patriotic Association insisted, in very harsh terms, on a Church that was totally independent from Rome.

John XXIII thought of inviting the Chinese bishops of the People’s Republic to Vatican II but ultimately decided against it. At the Council, though, 60 bishops exiled from mainland China were present, 49 of whom were foreigners.

The Cultural Revolution and the prohibition of all religious activity

The papacy of Paul VI (1963-1978) for the most part coincided with the dramatic moment of the Cultural Revolution and the period in which Western countries and the UN recognized the People’s Republic of China and no longer Taiwan (Republic of China). Paul VI, on the other hand, decided to preserve the recognition of Taiwan. In 1970 during his great trip to Asia and Oceania, Paul VI visited Hong Kong, the first and only pope to set foot on the territory of continental China.

In 1966 Mao Zedong launched the Cultural Revolution. This would mean the prohibition of all religious activity, the closing of all places of worship, and a prohibition of religious practices. The members of the Patriotic Associations would also be harshly affected. Mao died on September 9, 1976, and subsequently the “Gang of Four” was arrested and tried, marking the end of the Cultural Revolution.

Initial attempts at new relations during the papacy of John Paul II

The beginning of the papacy of John Paul II in 1978 essentially coincided with the rise and the reforms of Deng Xiaoping.

In 1979 came the first signs of a thaw in attitude in the religious sector. In 1980 some churches reopened in various cities. The Office of Religious Affairs was reconstituted, as were the five religious Patriotic Associations, which held their national congresses. The Catholic Patriotic Association was the third, followed by a conference of representatives, which in turn created a “Board of Chinese Bishops” that was never recognized by Rome. At the start of the 1980s, the interned bishops and priests were freed.

On February 18, 1981, from Manila where he was on an apostolic visit, John Paul II addressed a greeting to all of the Catholics in China. But in June the Vatican was accused of interference, due to the recognition of Deng Yiming as the archbishop of Guangzhou. The bishop of Baoding ordained three bishops without consulting with the Holy See. On December 12, 1981, Cardinal Agnelo Rossi, Prefect of the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples, authorized Chinese bishops who were “legitimate and faithful to the Holy See” to ordain other bishops, if necessary, without previously consulting with Rome. This privilege, which had already been granted in the past to European countries under communist rule, would lead to abuses however, and the conflicts between the “underground” and the “official” or “patriotic” Churches would be heightened.

In 1982 at the 12th Congress of the Communist Party, the famous “Document No. 19” was circulated, on the control of the five officially recognized religions (Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Protestantism and Catholicism). In the new Constitution, Article 36 stated that “religious bodies and religious affairs are not subject to any foreign domination.”

Yet in 1982 various activities of the Church resumed. The Jesuit Aloysius Jin Luxian – who would later be ordained bishop of Shanghai – was able to reopen the seminary in Sheshan, which had been without educational facilities for three decades. At the end of the decade, approximately 200 new priests were ordained. Various confiscated assets were returned, and convents of nuns were gradually opened, along with permission to conduct charitable and educational activities.

There was also an increase in the contacts between the Church in China and the bishops’ conferences and Catholic institutions of other countries. Yet since there were ambiguities and tensions in the relations with the Patriotic Association and its members, in 1988 Cardinal Jozef Tomko, Prefect of the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples, sent the Western bishops’ conferences some directives on the relations between “underground” and “patriotic” groups – the “Eight Points” – which would be the subject of much discussion. In the same year the government put rumors into circulation regarding imminent contacts with the Vatican for diplomatic relations, but in reality the aim of eliminating “Underground Christianity” continued.

Starting in 1989 with the events of Tiananmen Square and the crisis of communism in Europe, Chinese mistrust began to grow toward John Paul II, who in the meantime created Gong Pinmei a Cardinal. Since 1988 the latter had been granted permission to seek medical treatment in the United States. The government’s traditional line of control over religion continued in the 1990s as well.

However, after the end of the Cultural Revolution, many “patriotic” bishops in the new environment requested recognition from Rome through private channels, and obtained it. Thus the idea of a possible “schismatic” Church faded. In January 2007 the final statement of a meeting at the Vatican of a Commission on China declared “almost all the bishops and priests are in communion with Rome.” This showed an important change in the situation. In the Church in China there were some figures who were great pastors, recognized by the government and at the same time in communion with Rome, such as the bishop of Shanghai, mentioned earlier, Aloysius Jin Luxian.

In the year 2000 new difficulties arose in the relations between the Holy See and the People’s Republic of China, especially as regarded the ordinations of new illegitimate bishops in China and the canonization in Rome of 120 Chinese martyrs of the Boxer Rebellion precisely on October 1, the day of the national holiday of the People’s Republic. John Paul II worked hard to overcome those difficulties, in particular with a Message that had considerable resonance on the occasion of a Conference on Matteo Ricci at the Gregorian University (October 24, 2001). The pope addressed China, the Chinese and their authorities, extending a hand of friendship and esteem, recognizing “errors and limits of the past” and expressing in strong terms hope for the future: “For all of this I ask the forgiveness and understanding of those who may have felt hurt in some way by such actions on the part of Christians,” along with the express hope “that concrete forms of communication and cooperation between the Holy See and the People’s Republic of China may soon be established.”

In 2005 a new regulation for religious affairs took effect, but above all we should recall the laudatory declaration of the Minister of Foreign Affairs in Beijing on the occasion of the death of John Paul II, which was followed by a resumption of direct contacts.

The papacy of Benedict XVI: the pope’s letter

Despite the contacts, new tensions arose and in 2006 there were new cases of “illicit” ordinations to which the Holy See reacted. The contacts cooled down.

On May 27, 2007, Pope Benedict XVI sent an important letter “To Bishops, Priests, Consecrated Persons and Lay Faithful of the Catholic Church in the People’s Republic of China,” rich with pastoral concerns. The pope insisted on the unity of the Church, abolished all special faculties (for example, for “underground” ordinations of bishops), and expressed his hope for dialogue with the government authorities.

On May 7, 2008, at the Vatican, in Paul VI Hall, an exceptional concert was dedicated to Benedict XVI by the China Philharmonic Orchestra of Beijing, with the chorus of the Shanghai Opera. It was a significant moment of so-called “cultural diplomacy,” which also included other initiatives, such as historical and artistic exhibits (at the Vatican and in China) and the participation of scientists or experts at scientific or cultural conferences.

However, while for some years the ordinations of bishops had taken place with the consent of Rome, between 2010 and 2011 some new illicit ordinations took place, to which the Holy See ultimately reacted with particular firmness (July 16, 2011).

The papacy of Francis and the resumption of contacts

From the beginning of his papacy, Pope Francis has repeatedly shown intense and cordial interest in the Chinese people, contributing to the creation of a new, more relaxed atmosphere that allows for an actual resumption of the Holy See’s dialogue with the Chinese authorities. There are evident signs of this new atmosphere, such as the permits granted to the papal airplane to fly over Chinese territory on the occasion of the apostolic journey to Korea (May 14 and 18, 2014) and the messages sent by the pope to the Chinese president. The interview Pope Francis granted to the Asia Times, published on February 2, 2016, was also important, with many expressions of the pope’s esteem for the Chinese people and culture.

Contacts have multiplied in recent years and the channels of communication now appear more stable and effective. On multiple occasions some Chinese press organs and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs itself have published conciliatory declarations in regard to Pope Francis, both at the time of apostolic trips and as comments on the pope’s public statements. The rest is current affairs.

[1] Cf. The missionary instruction Neminem profecto of Gregory XVI, published in 1845.

[2] An article by the future Secretary of State, Cardinal Gasparri, published anonymously in La Civiltà Cattolica in 1904, helps us understand that the French protectorate was considered a troublesome legacy of the past.

[3] Cf. Instruction Plane compertum of Propaganda Fide, in 1939.

[4] On September 22 of this year, in concurrence with the announcement of the signing of a provisional agreement between China and the Holy See on the nomination of bishops, the establishment of the new diocese of Chengde was also announced.

La Civiltà Cattolica, English Edition Vol. 2, no. 12, article 2, December 2018. DOI: 10.32009/22072446.1812.2